Hallucinations And Pseudohallucination

"Hallucination as a perception without an object" was characterized by Esquirol (1817). Although these perceptions are not genuine, they are frequently vivid and compelling to the person experiencing them. They can involve any of the five senses: taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight. 

According to Jaspers (1961), a hallucination is a false experience that arises as something entirely new and coexists with true perception, without in any way distorting the former.  Detailed visions with a strong sense of objectivity and sensory consistency were used to characterize hallucinations.

Hallucination as an exteroceptive or interoceptive perception that does not correspond to an actual object" was defined by Smythies (1956).
Slade (1976) established three crucial standards for hallucinations. 

Experience that is perceptually similar when there is no outside stimuli.
A percept-like experience possesses all the power and influence of an actual perception. Percept-like experiences are unintentional, arise out of the blue, and are difficult for the percipient to regulate.

Hallucination Vs True Perception

Although the patient responds to hallucinations as though they were real impressions from "without," hallucinations originate "within."
Aggenaes (1972) investigated the patients' perception of reality during hallucinations. When a normal person experiences a sensation, they exhibit six characteristics. It has been observed that 90% of individuals who experience hallucinations also share comparable traits.

NORMAL SENSATION AND HALLUCINATIONS

While some writers think hallucinations can be distinguished from normal experience, others think they might be distinct and offer no proof that perception in other modalities is supported. 

According to Wernicke (1906), patients frequently refer to themselves as having a "hearing voice." These voices are often rated by patients as inner speech as opposed to spoken communication from the outside.

Hallucination Vs Vivid Mental Images

The mental recreation or imagination of sensory events is a component of vivid mental images. These visuals, in contrast to hallucinations, are created internally by the mind and are not interpreted as actual outside stimuli.

Hallucination Vs Dreams

Dreams are imaginative in nature and frequently contain fanciful or surreal features. Though vivid, dreams are not recognized as actual external inputs.

Role of Cutural Factors in Describing Abnormal Perceptions

Andrade (1988) described. True hallucinations are more likely to be objectively described; people in India are more receptive to paranormal activities.

Hallucination Causes

1. Emotions
2. Suggestions
3. Disorders of peripheral sense organs
4. Sensory deprivation 
5. CNS disorders

1. Emotions 
   • The patient experiences fragmented and single-word voices approaching them; if depressed, they may also experience guilt hallucination.
2. Suggestion
   • Through hypnosis or quick task-motivating training.
   • Hysterical Psychosis: This type of psychosis is characterized by an abrupt and dramatic start that is temporally linked to a highly distressing situation or occurrence. Delusions and hallucinations are among its symptoms.
   • Ganser Syndrome: The potential contribution of suggestion to the development of hallucinations.
3. Disorders of Peripheral Sense Organs
   • Charles Bonnet Syndrome (patient experiences complicated visual hallucinations) is one example of an ear condition that causes aural hallucinations and an eye ailment that causes visual hallucinations.
   • These people have decreased vision, but no psychopathological disorder is present. There's a chance that these peripheral sense organs play a part in biological hallucinations.  Alcohol misuse, for instance (patient may develop negative scotoma)
4. Sensory deprivation
   • Normal participants who have minimal exposure to incoming stimuli may have hallucinations within a few hours.  Brexton et al. conducted an experiment on Canadian students in which they were required to wear gloves and translucent glasses while lying down on a bed in a room. 
   • The background noise persisted. Some students experienced unpleasant experiences as a result, while some experienced hallucinations. The usage of protective patches is the cause of it.
   • After cataract surgery, delirium—also referred to as black patch disease—may develop.
5. Disorders of CNS
   • It causes abnormalities in the cortex and diencephalon; aural hallucinations can arise from visual hallucinations.  A hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucination, for instance.

Pseudohallucination

People who experience pseudohallucinations, as opposed to genuine hallucinations, are cognizant of the fact that their perceptions are the result of their own imagination or internal mental processes. 

According to Jasper (1961), pseudohallucination is similar to normal perception, except that it occurs in the inner subjective space. Kandisky described pseudohallucination as a subjective perception of vividness that is characteristic of real hallucinations, except that it does not have objective reality. It cannot be intentionally evoked and happens against the subject's will.

It is possible to identify pseudohallucination in tactile, visual, or aural modalities. Hare (1973) provided a perceptive description of hallucinations. The patient is conscious of the fact that these hallucinations don't match the outside world. Patient insight may change over time. Jasper (1963) asserts that hallucinations are similar to normal perception in terms of vividness and clarity, with the exception that they take place in inner subjective space.

There is no pathognomic utility to pseudohallucinations related to mental illnesses. A sick mental state is always indicated by hallucinations. There isn't a difference between real and pseudohallucination, according to Jasper. Fish asserts that hallucinations and pseudohallucinations are on a continuum.

Hallucinations Of Individual Senses

Hallucinations are classified into five types based on the modalities of perception: auditory, tactile, visual, olfactory, and gustatory.

1. Auditory Hallucinations
   • Hearing voices or noises that are not there in the surrounding environment is known as an auditory hallucination. These might be anything from straightforward noises to intricate voices or dialogues.
   • It is the most typical kind of delusion. There are many different kinds of it, such as rudimentary hallucinations, which are less formulated or structured. Examples: In organic states, a person hears music, whistles, or claps. Individuals with brain diseases or those who are deaf may also hear music even though they have never had a mental health diagnosis.
   • Additionally, patients may hear human or animal sounds.

Hearing voices can be seen in schizophrenia, and these sounds are of various types:

Thoughts echo is also known as Echo de la pensee (French) and Gedankenlautwerden (German). Mind broadcasting, mind dispersal, or thought disorder are terms used to characterize it. Before a thought broadcast can occur, there must be a thought echo. Schneider's first-rank symptom is this one. It suggests that the individual can hear his own thoughts.

3^rd person hallucination auditory hallucination- Running commentary about their actions, for instance; arguing with others or discussing patients; This symptom is also present in Schneider's first-rank symptom (SFRS).

Affective psychosis and persistent alcohol hallucinosis can also exhibit these hearing voices. Simple words and short sentences can be observed in biological states. Patients may frequently experience urgent hallucinations, in which voices direct them. These hearing voices could have an aggressive, impartial, or supportive tone. 

The ability to tolerate ambiguity in cognitive processing was found to be compromised in patients with auditory hallucinations and schizophrenia.

The patient's ability to tolerate ambiguity is assessed by having them identify spoken words that are muffled by background conversations.
This masking is gradually removed to allow the patient to hear spoken words. The existence of other interpretations. It introduced mistakes of premature judgment that could cause auditory hallucinations. It lowers the quality of perception that could cause auditory hallucinations.

Effect of Voices on Patient Behavior

Patients experiencing auditory hallucinations grow fixated on these voices, beginning to hear them and respond. It is been observed that a patient may not find ongoing hallucinations to be upsetting. These individuals developed coping methods to deal with their persistent auditory hallucinations (AH), which Fallon and Talbot (1981) detailed. 

Behavioral adjustments changed posture, which lessened the effect of these hallucinations (laying down and looking for other people to spend time with). Modifications to sensory and affective states: adjusting physiological arousal through exercise or relaxation to manage anxiety and stress. Cognitive techniques to resist delusions and regulate attention.

1. Visual Hallucinations (VH)

 Visual hallucinations are when a person sees patterns, people, or objects that are not there. These vivid hallucinations might be anything from basic outlines to intricate, well-detailed scenarios. Elementary VH can cause patterns and light flashes in a person.  Some individuals have a more structured form of visual hallucinations (VH), such as seeing objects or persons. Patients may occasionally perceive the scenery as a hallucination.  Compared to functional psychosis, organic states are more typical in VH. 

Those with occipital tumors and delirium tremens, among other delirium causes, are examples. Seeing tiny creatures or insects is the most prevalent kind of delirium in patients with VH. Epilepsy, metabolic disorders (hepatic failure), and post-concussional condition.  Patients with dementia may have Alzheimer's disease, pick's disease, Lewy body dementia (LBD), or symptoms similar to VH. VH is brought on by drugs like mescaline and LSD.
It is primarily associated with medical issues and the elderly. It also has a high correlation with ocular pathology and VH. In biological conditions such as temporal state epilepsy and schizophrenia, VH and AH may coexist (uncommon). VH can occasionally coexist with AH in oneroid states. Individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia with a late start also encounter both AH and VH.

Charles Bonet Syndrome or Phantom Visual Image

There is no psychopathology or disruption of normal consciousness; the patient has complex VH with visual impairment. It is more frequently linked to central or peripheral visual loss in the elderly. Days or years may pass throughout it. Older adults with normal consciousness were classified as having VH by Podoll et al.

No organic offensive or delirious syndrome, delirium, dementia, drunkenness, psychosis, or neurological condition involving lesions in the central visual cortex are present. In most situations, low vision is caused by an eye condition. External space is the location of hallucinations, which are typically sophisticated, colorful hallucinations.
The most frequent type of hallucination is seeing people. There are also visible plants, animals, and inanimate objects. One-third of the patients exhibit geometric patterns, and they could have surreal insights.

Also Read: Exploring Trailing Phenomena: Perception Beyond The Ordinary

Delirium Tremens

The patient can be experiencing affective or pareidolic illusions as prodromes. Visual and tactile lilliputian hallucinations may ensue.
The patient sees persons or little animals. It might have an odd outcome.

1. Tactile Hallucinations  
   • Without any external origin, tactile hallucinations entail the feeling of touch or movement on the skin. People who have tactile hallucinations may experience pressure, scorching, or crawling insects.Another name for it is "body sensation hallucination." Sims (2003) distinguished three categories for these hallucinations: The three types of hallucinations are visceral, kinaesthetic, and superficial.

A. Superficial Hallucinations 

Have an impact on the skin, which could be thermal (abnormal feeling of heat or cold). A haptic hallucination occurs when the patient has the sensation of being touched. The sensation of fluid in the chest is known as a hydric hallucination. The most prevalent form of tactile hallucination, sometimes referred to as formication, is hypotactic hallucination.  Paraesthesia hallucination is linked to neurological problems in nerve compression. 

The patient experiences an uncomfortable type of haptic hallucination in which they perceive little animals or insects crawling all over their body.
Cocaine addiction patients frequently experience delusions of infestation, sometimes referred to as "cocaine bugs" or "magnum bugs." This phenomenon can also happen during alcohol withdrawal.

B. Kinaesthetic Hallucination

Delusions related to joint and muscle feeling. The patient experiences a twisting or crushing of the muscles. Organic states, BZD withdrawal, or delirium tremens may experience it. The patient could feel as though they are floating (vestibular feeling). Schizophrenia sufferers may also experience it.

C. Visceral Hallucination

 Patients feel heavy or throbbing pain. False perception of inner organs.

Delusional Zoopathy

A hallucination component, or the erroneous impression that animals are crawling into the body, may be connected to sudden organic illnesses such tumors entering the thalamus.

n Tactile Hallucinations

In the absence of any brain disorders; schizophrenia is the most frequent cause of tactile hallucinations. Consistently offer a fictitious justification (particularly a control hallucination). The patient claims that they have an abdominal ache and that they believe it is caused by black magic. Patients frequently describe having sexual hallucinations.

1. Olfactory Hallucinations
   • Olfactory hallucinations involve perceiving odors or smells that are not present in the surrounding environment. These hallucinations are less common than auditory or visual hallucinations. Smell may or may not be present. Padre Pio phenomenon states that smells may be present.
   • Some religious people can smell roses around saints. It has special and personal significance. Olfactory hallucinations occur in schizophrenia, epilepsy (temporal lobe focus), and organic states and are uncommon in depressive psychosis. It is difficult to differentiate between illusions and delusions.
2. Gustatory Hallucinations
   • Gustatory hallucinations involve perceiving tastes that are not associated with any external stimuli. These include metallic, onion, and strange tastes. Gustatory hallucinations occur in schizophrenia (delusion of being poisoned), epilepsy (temporal lobe focus), organic states, and drugs like disulfiram and lithium.

Other Abnormalities Of Perception

1. Autoscopy (Phantom-Mirror Image)
   • Fere used this phrase for the first time in 1891. The patient has had the experience of realizing that they are themselves and seeing themselves. The experience of viewing one's own body from an external location is known as autoscopy. It is frequently linked to depersonalization or out-of-body experiences (OBEs). During autoscopy, patients may feel as though they are looking at their own bodies from a strange angle. The patient exhibits somatic and kinaesthetic hallucinations in addition to VH. 
   • Males are more likely than females to autoscopy. Psychiatric and neurological conditions could be present. Focused lesions in the parieto-occipital region may be linked to autoscopy in organic conditions like epilepsy. Ineffective states that impact basal regions may be observed. Patients with schizophrenia, emotionally motivated healthy volunteers, and hysterical patients may undergo autoscopy.
   • Negative autoscopy: The patient sees nothing at all when they glance in the mirror. 
   • Internal autoscopy: The procedure allows the patient to view their own organs. This kind of autoscopy is uncommon.
2. Extracampine Hallucination (Concrete Awareness)
   • The patient has hallucinations that are not contained within the sensory field. The term "extracampine hallucination" describes a particular kind of hallucination in which a person believes that sounds or images are happening outside of their own visual or aural field. Put more simply, it refers to the experience of anything that is not directly in front of or behind an individual. 
   • The patient reports having auditory hallucinations in which voices are inaudible. The witness can say that he noticed someone standing behind him as he was standing up. In healthy individuals, it manifests as epilepsy, schizophrenia, and hypnagogic hallucinations.
3. Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations
   • When tiredness increases, these hallucinations happen. A hypnagogic hallucination is when a person has hallucinations when they are asleep.
   • When a person is going from wakefulness to sleep, they can have vivid, dream-like experiences known as hypnagogic hallucinations.  A person who experiences hallucinations when awakening from sleep or going to sleep is said to have a hypnopompic hallucination.
   • While hypnopompic hallucinations happen during the shift from awake to sleep rather than from wakefulness to sleep, they are comparable to hypnagogic hallucinations.  While hypnagogic hallucinations are more prevalent in narcolepsy patients, hypnopompic hallucinations are a more accurate marker of the condition. • There are several illnesses that might cause these hallucinations, including phobic anxiety neuroses, post-effective depressed states, acute fever in youngsters, and narcolepsy.
   • Visual, tactile, or kinaesthetic hallucinations are also possible, but auditory hallucinations are the most prevalent kind.
4. Functional Hallucination
   • The delusion must be induced by external stimuli. Hallucinations and normal stimuli perception happen simultaneously and in the same sensory modality. An example of an auditory hallucination is when the patient hears the sound of his phone ringing and simultaneously hears a man's voice coming from the room. Patients can tell them apart, such as a male voice and ringtone.
5. Reflex Hallucination
   • Synesthesia is the sensation of sensory inputs in one modality being perceived in another modality. This sort of synesthesia is hallucinatory.
   • One such name for it is a malignant form of synesthesia. It takes outside stimulation to cause a hallucination. Hallucinations and normal sensory perception happen simultaneously and in distinct modalities. 
   • For instance, he sees a dead guy wandering the room every time his cell phone rings. Dead Man is a visual modality, while Ring Tone is a typical audio modality experience. Reflex hallucinations are a side effect of hallucinogenic substances such as mescaline and LSD.

Hallucinatory Syndrome (Hallucinosis)

There are two types of hallucinatory syndromes: organic hallucinosis and alcoholic hallucinosis. It is an illness characterized by recurrent hallucinations without any psychotic symptoms.

Alcoholic Hallucinosis

Happens when someone drinks alcohol for an extended period of time.  Most often, these are hearing hallucinations. The patient's sensorium is transparent. These delusions hardly ever endure more than a week.
The patient may feel threatened or deceived by it. 

Organic Hallucinosis

 Happens in 20–30% of dementia patients, particularly those with Alzheimer's disease. Memory loss and disorientation are among possible symptoms. All senses can experience organic hallucinosis.
Organic somatic hallucinations can also occur in certain individuals.  Organic visual hallucinations include eye illnesses, optic tract lesions, CNS problems, etc. 

Organic Somatic Hallucinations 

The most common organic somatic hallucination is called "phantom limb," and individuals with this disease report sensations in an imaginary limb, whether they are painful or not. It frequently happens as a result of thalamoparietal lesions. Patients self-identify as having a third limb. Parietal and central disorders may occasionally be the cause. 

It generally happens when an amputation is performed after the age of six.  Phantom organ perception: This happens during surgical operations like laryngectomy or mastectomy.  Temporal lobe lesion: Patients do not experience somatic hallucinations, yet multiple hallucinations are visible.

Differential Diagnosis Of Hallucination

• Illusion
• Pseudohallucination
• Hypnogogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
• Vivid images
• Normal perceptions
• Delusion

Body Image Distortions

A person with a distorted perception of their own body is said to have body image distortion, which is a mental health condition that can take many different forms. Some of these include perceiving one's body as larger or smaller than it actually is, focusing on perceived flaws or imperfections, and experiencing significant distress related to body image. 

Hyperschemazia: Patients perceive their bodily parts as larger than they actually are. It can happen in a number of illnesses, including peripheral vascular conditions like thrombosis and multiple sclerosis. Psychiatric conditions including anorexia neurosa, depersonalization disorder, and conversion disorder can also exhibit it. Aschemazia or hyposchemazia: Lack of awareness of bodily components or a reduction in it  It can be observed in conditions such as KORO, underwater images of a healthy individual, and parietal lobe lesions.

Koro Syndrome 

It is a multi-tiered illness characterized by a pervasive sense that one's sexual organs are becoming smaller versions of themselves.

• Paraschemazia:- A person may have a distortion of their bodily image, feeling as though their body parts are not connected. This might occur when using medicines that cause hallucinations, migraines, or epilepsy.
• Hemisomatognosia: Unilateral lack of body image. It can be seen in migraine and epilepsy.
• Anosognosia: The patient refuses to admit illness.
• Somatoparaphrenia: A person experiences that his limb belongs to someone else.
• Hemispatial neglect: Neglect of the hemispace on the contralateral side of the lesion when doing a task.

The neurological disorder known as hemispatial neglect, sometimes referred to as unilateral neglect or hemineglect, is typified by the incapacity to focus attention or awareness on stimuli on one side of the body or one side of the visual field. This disorder usually develops following injury to the right hemisphere of the brain, frequently to the parietal lobe. It is present in diseases such as Gestmann syndrome, which is brought on by a parietal lobe lesion. Signs such as R/L disorientation, finger agnosia, agraphia, and acalculia.

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