In-depth Analysis of Motivation Theories: What Drives Us

The Latin word "movere," which meaning "to move," is the source of motivation. 

What Exactly Is Motivation?

The pulling and driving forces produce steadfast conduct aimed at specific objectives.

Motives

Drive and need are synonyms for motivation. Two categories of intents:
First-class; second-class.

• Primary: Innate, physiological, and homeostatic. These motivations have biological roots.
• Secondary: Not homeostatic/acquired. These are acquired motivations. 

Behaviors lead to the deduction of motives. Our actions and words reveal our motivations. When a student puts in a lot of effort, completes all of his assignments, and reads more than the required amount, for instance, it is clear that he has goals and objectives in mind. Motives aid in the explanation of the actions. For instance, societal expectations or the drive to learn could be the driving forces behind a resident's diligent work, examinations of patients, reading of theories, etc.

Motivators aid in behavior prediction. Let's say there is an objective to accomplish. In that scenario, one is likely to demonstrate traits like putting in a lot of effort, going above and above in tasks, studying for tests, etc.

Also Read: Neurotransmitters: Glutamic Acid, Synthesis, Glutaminergic Pathways In The Brain

Theories Of Motivation

There Are 4 Important Theories Of Motivation:

1. Drive theories
2. Incentive theories
3. Opponent-process theories
4. Optimal-level theories. 

1. Drive theories 

The push hypothesis of motivation is another name for it. Self-driving states force behavior toward objectives. When a person experiences an internal driving state, they are compelled to take actions that result in objectives that lessen the severity of the driving feeling. Motivation cycle: goal-directed behavior results from the emergence of a driving state, which can be brought on by biological need or external cues. This leads to the achievement of the objective, which subsequently brings about a feeling of relaxation and satisfaction. 

The driving condition regains its strength after a predetermined amount of time, and the cycle is repeated. The drive theories provide an explanation for biological requirements such as hunger, thirst, and sex.
When hunger is your primary motivator, for instance, you may cook, order takeout, or engage in other activities that help you accomplish your objective of fullness and ultimately feel satisfied. Driving theories can be either learnt or inborn/instinctive, depending on where the driving condition originates. 

A. Inborn

An individual's genetically based tendency to behave a certain manner in response to a certain stimulus. Many of Freud's theories reflect his belief that driving states are innate or instinctual. The terms "fixed action pattern" and "instincts" are used interchangeably by ethologists. The phrase refers to unlearned behavior that is specific to a species and is released in response to naturally occurring stimuli or situations. 

When three-spined stickleback fish see the red belly of a male species, aggressive behavior is released, according to research done in 1951 by ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen. He displayed a picture of the fish without a red belly and showed no signs of hostility. But when he applied red paint to the belly of a subpar duplicate, he noticed acts of aggression. As a result, this conduct was natural and instinctive. 

B. Learned drive

Vary from person to person and may become enduring traits of the specific individual. Derive from a person's instruction or from their prior experiences. They drive someone toward a certain objective.
For instance, a drug addict is driven in the path of substance use because they develop a drive to do so. The behaviors of drug addicts may be explained by learned drives. Homeostasis is connected to drive theories. The body seeks to sustain a specific internal condition on a steady basis. 

The body temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit on average. Sweating occurs as a result of the body trying to preserve homeostasis when the temperature rises. Moreover, it encourages other later prompted actions such as turning on the air conditioner and fan. The body begins to shiver when its temperature dips.

There may also be other motivated behaviors that follow, such as putting on extra clothing, turning on the heating, etc. Here, the driving condition was the shift in temperature.

Hull's drive reduction hypothesis requires that a strong drive be reduced, and that it work as a potent and compelling force toward a certain objective. A person is driven to a particular activity to decrease the driving state in order to maintain certain bodily functions at steady-state levels.

Though they were among the earliest hypotheses put forth to describe motivation, they were not sufficient to explain all motivated conduct, as certain motivated action cannot be explained by a lowering of arousal. 

Some research revealed that, for instance, rats that had been deprived for a day were given artificial sweeteners to eat for hours on end, despite the fact that these sweeteners had no nutritional value and that their physiological sense of hunger remained unchanged. There was another reason they were driven to consume the sweetener. 

Completing intricate problems would allow monkeys to see their preferred toy move. But drive theories don't explain this puzzle-solving behavior. 

2. Incentive Theories

These theories, which go by the name "pull theories of motivation," contend that particular traits of the target objects cause people to behave in a way that is drawn toward them. Drive theories may account for biological motivations in certain situations, but not in others.

Trial: A day of starvation was administered to two groups of rats. Group 2 received basic rat food, whereas Group 1 was served delectable items. Drive theories suggest that in order to satiate their driving state of hunger, the two groups should consume an equivalent amount of food. Group 1 was found to have consumed more food, nevertheless. This conduct can be explained by incentive theories and the aim that drove it. 

Rats are driven to mate when they believe that a certain sexual objective is appropriate. Goal objects, also referred to as incentives, come in both positive and negative forms.

Positive incentives: When a goal is accomplished, people can anticipate feeling good. For instance, people put in a lot of effort to improve their opportunities, pay, etc. 

Negative incentives: People anticipate pleasure when they evade the objective. For instance, the individual shows up at work to avoid losing security and getting fired. According to some motivation theories, an individual's internal state pushes them in a certain way. On the other hand, incentive theories differ in that they assume that an individual is motivated to carry out specific acts by external purposes.

3. Opponent-process Theories 

 It bases its theory of motivation on hedonism. Any behavior's primary determinant is its avoidance of pleasure or suffering. Individuals are driven to pursue objectives that elicit positive emotions and to steer clear of those that do the opposite. Theories of emotions are another category for them.  Theoretical foundation: It has been noted that conflicting emotional states frequently accompany several emotional states. 

A woman can feel nervous and concerned when she finds a lump in her breast, for instance. She goes to the physician and is examined. When the doctor assures her that it is not serious, her mood brightens up. An opposing emotional state (positive) came after the initial emotional state (negative). When someone takes heroin for the first time, for instance, they feel a rush of pleasure. It diminishes after the height of pleasure until yearning and dissatisfaction arise. After some time, it returns to the baseline. Emotion shifts from a happy to a negative condition.

A recurrent heroin user builds up a tolerance after numerous stimulations in the same scenario. When the stimulus is lessened, desire and dysfunction increase.  Some of the learnt reasons have a foundation provided by this idea. For instance, obtaining pleasure is the primary driving force behind the addiction of a heroin user. The person is encouraged to keep taking the drug after many uses in order to lessen the agony or discomfort that comes with being drug-free. 

An illustration of opponent-process theories: a person's primary motivation for getting married is their want to be with their partner and experience pleasure. After a while, the person continues in the marriage to avoid the awkwardness of getting a divorce, being alone, etc.

4. Optimal level theories

Another name for them is arousal theories or just appropriate theories.
Pleasure is achieved at a particular ideal or best level of arousal.
Pleasure decreases when the level is raised or lowered. The nervous system seeks a balance—an ideal level of arousal—and the individual is driven to act in a way that maintains that level. 

Also Read: 5 Effective Study Strategies for Psychiatry Residency Exams

Yerkes-Dodson Curve

Performance efficiency will also be low when there is a low state of arousal, such as when you have just woken up feeling sleepy. Efficiency rises in tandem with arousal until it reaches an ideal arousal level at the height of efficiency. Nevertheless, efficiency declines as arousal levels rise. 

For instance, when a person is studying without worrying about tests (because exam season is far off), performance efficiency is poor. Even yet, studying becomes more fruitful and performance efficiency might peak at the right level of stress (eustress). As stress levels rise and become uncontrollable, we observe a decline in performance. 

When arousal is low, a person will look for stimuli or events to raise it, and vice versa. For instance, when you're bored, you'll look for more entertainment, and when you're overworked, you'll want to cut back on your workload. No single explanation can fully account for motivation. Every theory delves into a different understanding of motivation and related actions. In certain instances, these theories may even interact to provide a comprehensive picture of motivation.

Q.1 An MBBS student was preparing for final year exams, he was worried as his internal didn’t go well and thought he might fail and hence he started working hard.

He began to enjoy studying throughout his preparations and would even complete MCQs out of curiosity. He was going to study longer now. In addition to receiving a high score on his PG entrance examinations, he passed his final year exams. And is currently pursuing a postgraduate degree from his preferred college in the field of psychiatry.

Also Read: Glutamic Acid: Synthesis, Pathways, Receptors, Uses And Conditions

Which Theories Of Motivation Apply Here?

His fear of making mistakes and his desire to stay out of trouble drove him to begin studying. This theory of negative incentives is used. Later on, he started to like learning, which is consistent with the positive incentive theory. In general, incentive theories of motivation are at work here. 

1. Biological Motivation

 Throughout many of its internal physiological processes, the body strives to preserve a condition of equilibrium known as homeostasis.
Biological reasons: the need for oxygen, hunger, thirst, sex desire, temperature regulation, sleep, and pain avoidance.  Biological motives are triggered in the event of a deviation from homeostasis, leading to motivated behavior to return to the baseline. 

2. Hunger Motivation 

The primary motivation for maintaining life is hunger. It appears that the purpose of feeding is to maintain a particular level of nutritional nutrients or the rate at which the body uses them. When the rate drops below the predetermined threshold, a hunger drive is started. The most crucial component in starting the hunger drive and feeding is blood glucose. 

The trigger: The body's rate of glucose use. When someone receives insulin, their blood glucose levels drop, which triggers hunger. Ketones, which are produced as fat breaks down, and free fatty acids, which are derived from the breakdown of fat, are additional fuels that stimulate hunger. The feeding system is located in the lateral hypothalamus, and the satiety system is located in the ventromedial hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is engaged in numerous biological reasons. 

Stopping eating till full. The stomach sends satiety signals and has nutrition receptors. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is another possible satiety signal. It has a role in the metabolism of fat. The meal then produces these signals after it enters the intestine. 

When food enters the digestive system, it releases CCK, which alerts the brain to reduced nutrition, blood sugar, and outside influences.
As a result, the person stops eating and the motor centers involved in eating are activated. 

3. Thirst Motivation

The twin depletion hypothesis states that two bodily circumstances cause thirst motivation and drinking.
1. Loss of water from cells: Osmoreceptors, nerve cells in the anterior hypothalamus, are responsible for sending out impulses in response to thirst or cellular dehydration.
2. Decrease in blood volume: Dehydration lowers blood pressure and causes the kidneys to release renin, which causes the secretion of angiotensin and thirst. The hormone known as antidiuretic helps to keep fluid levels stable. 

Also Read: Limbic System: Structure, Function, Embryology And Clinical Significance

Double Depletion Hypothesis

Hypothalamic osmoreceptors are stimulated when cells lose water.
Lower blood pressure and renin-angiotensin system activation result from reduced blood volume. Thirst results from this.  Drinking causes the stomach and intestine's receptors to shut down. 

4. Sexual Motivation 

Unlike other biological motives, it is not triggered by a lack of any material in the body. It is not necessary for the person's survival and it is more influenced by sensory information from the environment (incentives) than any other biological motive. 

Hereditary and hormonal influences on sexual motivation: The sex chromosome contains genes that initiate sexual development. Male sex chromosome babies grow testes and emit testosterone, whereas female sex chromosome fetuses develop ovaries and secrete estrogen. Hormones control how the body and brain grow sexually as well as secondary sexual traits during puberty. 

It has an impact on the brain, which causes gonadotropin-releasing factors to be secreted and activate the pituitary and gonadotropins. In females, the ovaries secrete progesterone and estrogen, mature follicles, ovulate, and release LH and FSH. A negative feedback loop is produced. 

 In males, ICHS causes sperm maturation in the testes, which triggers testosterone release. Individual differences in sexual behavior can be attributed to a variety of reasons, including past sexual experiences, social conventions, internalized parental standards and other attitudes, masturbation, outside triggers, and physiological considerations. 

 The function of touch, olfactory, and visual inputs, for instance. People's opinions-both favorable and negative-about actions, individuals, concepts, and items play a part in their attitudes. Positive views on sex in general: Take pleasure in your libido more and partake in a variety of regular and exciting sexual activities. 

A pessimistic view of masturbation: Less arousal from sexual cues. It has been observed that attitudes and outside cues have a greater influence on women's sexual behavior activation than hormones. While it is observed that environmental events are triggers in males with sufficient androgen levels, a large portion of the variability appears to be attributed to individuals' early learning experiences. 

Also Read: Thought Disorder: Causes, Types, Symptoms, Risk Factors, Diagnosis And Treatment

Hope you found this blog helpful for your Psychiatry residency Basic Sciences preparation. For more informative and interesting posts like these, keep reading PrepLadder’s blogs.